Institute for
Sociology and the History of Ideas
Discussion:
Buddhism
Professor
of Buddhist Studies debunks the myth that Eastern religions are the champions
of contemplative practices, that privilege revealed mystical experience over
the observance of scripture and ritual, as a means to attain spiritual
authority. Rather these Eastern practices are thoroughly modern and are based
on nineteenth-century Western theologian’s defenses of the religious realm as
intensely private, and therefore free from the demands of scientific proof in
an age of industrialization. Eastern intellectuals educated in the Christian
missionary schools were exposed to such theological ideas and used them to
marshal defenses against colonialism. Both Hindu nationalists, inspired by the
ideas of Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan in India, and Zen Buddhist nationalists
inspired by D.T. Suzuki in Japan, aimed to redefine the East as more
spiritually advanced, though technologically behind the West, to instill a
sense of national pride and spiritual superiority in their followers. This
would appear to undermine New Age perspectives that posit "ancient"
Eastern spiritual practices as the true pathway to mystical enlightenment. In
fact, argues the author, these contemplative practices are a product of
modernity and were popularized by Eastern intellectuals educated in the
Western, Christian theological tradition, for political purposes.
But
remember, the current argument is that the only difference between the East and
the West is the esotericism in the West went underground, especially with the
rise of rationalism, which took dogmatic proportions and has led to modern
beliefs in scientism, complete materialistic reductionism. On the otherwise,
while rationalism was present in the East, even before Western colonialization
(something Western-centric scholars would not like to admit) the majority
worldview of the East was not rationalism (whether in a Wilberian since you
call it "prerational" or "transrational") and thus there
was no majority rejection of mysticism, whether understood or not. The lack of
a majority rejection could be seen as implicit support, and at times there has
apparently been mass approval and explicit support of mystical quests and
ideas, again whether understood or not.
While
opinions in Europe and North America tend to view Buddhism as some sort of
unified religion the origins and spreading of Buddhism tell a different story.
Whereas
initially Buddhism remained confined to northern India for two hundred years it
began to spread under King Asoka’s power (274–232 BC).
Over time,
Buddhism developed into several distinct branches. Theravada Buddhism, the most conservative
school, is prominent in Southeast Asian countries such as Thailand, Sri Lanka,
and Myanmar. Mahayana Buddhism, the more liberal, is practiced in East Asian
and South Asian countries such as China and India. Vajrayana Buddhism is most
prevalent in Tibet and other Himalayan countries.
In India,
Buddhism began to wane in the sixth and seventh centuries CE when devotional
Hinduism replaced Buddhism in the south and Hephthalite Huns invaded and sacked
monasteries in the north. By the thirteenth century, repeated invasions by the
Turks ensured that Buddhism had virtually disappeared. By this time, however,
Buddhism was flourishing in many other parts of Asia.
As early
as the first century CE, Buddhist monks made their way over the “Silk Road”
through Central Asia to China. By the seventh century, Buddhism had made a
significant impact in China, interacting with Confucian and Daoist cultures and
ideas.
It is also
here that we see one of the examples of the syncretic nature of Buddhism. Thus
were in the beginning Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism vied with one another
for the hearts and minds of the populace, over time they began to blend together.
In the
eighth century, Buddhism, shaped by the Tantric traditions of northeast India,
spread to the high mountain plateau of Tibet. There, in interaction with the
indigenous Bon religion, and with forms of Buddhism that had traveled to Tibet
from East Asia, a distinctive and vibrant form of Mahayana Buddhism emerged
known as Vajrayana, the “Diamond Vehicle.”
These
streams of Buddhism are differentiated to some extent by their interpretations
of the Buddha and the Buddha’s teachings, the scriptures they hold in special
reverence, and the variety of cultural expressions they lend to Buddhist life
and practice. It would be a mistake, however, to identify these streams of
tradition too rigidly with either specific ideas or specific geographical
areas.
Western
ideas also influenced other forms of syncretism. Thus, for example, the
Buddhist doctrine of rebirth was read in terms of contemporary biological insights: humans are
but one of many life-forms, they are not biologically privileged or different,
as certain religious creation myths suggest, but are instead part of a more extensive
web of life. Buddhist cosmologies, according to which there are multiple
“world-systems” that are effectively similar to our own, were read in terms of
the findings of modern astronomy, which posited the existence of innumerable
planets orbiting innumerable stars throughout the universe. Buddhist
ontological theories based on the idea that all phenomena are constituted of
tiny, invisible particles were read as anticipating and according to the
worldview of contemporary physics and chemistry.
For their
part, Asian Buddhist apologists who were subject to polemical arguments from
Western Christians and from Asian modernists who embraced the new scientific
theories and their related technologies and applications tended to resist those
pressures by reinterpreting Buddhist teachings and worldviews according to the
latest findings of science. Charges that Buddhism was unscientific, backward
superstition were countered by Buddhist leaders who argued that Buddhism, properly understood, was a scientific tradition.
But with
current book titles like "No Self, No Problem: How Neuropsychology Is
Catching Up to Buddhism" (2019) it is the emerging field of psychology
that Buddhism is believed to most closely resemble.
Enter the era of Nationalism and Zen Buddhism
Similarly
the combination of Westerners seeking a religious tradition that accorded with
their worldviews and values and of Asian Buddhists promoting a vision of
Buddhism that was in line with those values resulted in the widespread
perception that Buddhism is, among other things, a religious tradition that is
essentially dedicated to peace and nonviolence. Whereby I have detailed how Buddhism very well
lends itself to Nationalism and even war.
Another
example of this is the Venerable Master Taixu (1890-1947) after the
military conflict between Chinese and Japanese troops in Jinan in
1928, Taixu became a critic of Japanese Buddhists who, according to
him, had detracted from the true Buddhist path by conniving with and supporting
Japanese aggression against China, yet he spared no effort to persuade them
against Japanese imperialistic policy. Meanwhile, he urged Chinese Buddhists to
prepare themselves for and participate in resisting Japanese invasion, and justified his call as the way to
revive Buddhism.
Following see also Taixu’s letter to Adolf
Hitler:
According
to Buddhists scripture, only Buddhists count as human beings and there is
no moral or karmic issue with killing non-Buddhists. Here, as in other Buddhist
sources, the prohibition against violence is superseded by the imperative to
disseminate and preserve Buddhism.
Beyond
such rhetorical support for violence and warfare, there are also multiple
examples of fighting Buddhist monks. The Buddhist monks of Shaolin Monastery
are perhaps the most well-known examples of warrior monks. Depicted in numerous
kung-fu movies, the Buddhist monks of Shaolin Monastery are renowned for their
skill in the martial arts. Historically, the monks of Shaolin Monastery came to
prominence in the seventh century when they fought on behalf of the Chinese
emperor to defeat Wang Shichong (567–621), a claimant to the Chinese
throne who was defeated by the founders of the Tang Dynasty (618–907). The
fighting Buddhist monks of Shaolin are not an anomaly.
The sōhei or “warrior monks” of Japan were effectively monastic
troops that fought on behalf of their resident monasteries against other
warrior monks. They also fought in the Genpei War (1180–1185), a
civil war that resulted in the establishment of the Kamakura shogunate in
Japan. In the massive Buddhist monasteries of traditional Tibet, monks
called dap dop served as a police force and militia. The dap dop
were recognized as monastic Buddhists, though they carried weapons and did not
observe standard monastic discipline. Perhaps the most striking example of
Buddhist involvement in violence and warfare is the role of the Japanese
Buddhist establishment in the war efforts of imperial Japan in the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Buddhist monks in Japan supported the
wars by providing justification for the invasion of East Asian nations and the
slaughter of their people as an expression of benevolence and compassion,
officers were trained in Zen Buddhist establishments in order to make them
effective soldiers, and Buddhist monks even formed fighting units. Although
Buddhism was presented and received in the West as an essentially peaceful
tradition, several of the early and most important representatives of Japanese
Buddhism in the United States had ties to the Japanese war effort;
Shaku Sōen and D. T. Suzuki (the latter as we will see further
below) had actively promoted a nationalistic, prowar version of Buddhism, for
example.
Similar
examples could recently be seen
in Myanmar which is contrasted by the western syncretism of Zen Master
Thich Nhat Hanh who was teaching comparative religions at Princeton
University and went on to become a lecturer at Columbia University which led to
another form of syncretism, that of Buddhist environmentalism.
As for Zen
Hundreds of books have been written that apply the principles of Zen Buddhism to
a wide range of activities. These “Zen and the Art of . . .” or “Zen in the Art
of . . .” books seemingly cover every possible human endeavor like Lawrence M.
Kahn Zen and the Art of Hiring a Personal Injury Lawyer (2010),Cary
Black and Don Black Zen and the Art of Cooking Beer-Can Chicken
(2007), with other titles like “Zen in the Art of Slaying Vampires”, or “Zen
and the Art of Public School Teaching”, just to name a few. These books reflect
the fact that the principles of Zen may be applied to any activity—from
traditional flower arranging and the preparation, serving, and drinking of tea
to archery, small engine repair, and, evidently, cooking beer-can chicken. Phil
Jackson (1945–), the former coach of the Chicago Bulls and Los Angeles Lakers,
applied the principles of Zen to professional basketball and won a record
eleven NBA titles as a coach (Jackson 2014). Along with books
applying the principles of Zen to any action, the market is saturated with
“Zen” products. These include shoes, lamps and lights, vacuum cleaners,
guitars, ceiling fans, furniture, bassinets, makeup and beauty products,
toothpaste, energy drinks, herbal supplements (for both humans and dogs),
e-cigarettes, and liqueur.
As has
been described in William Theodore De Bary, Donald Keene, George Tanabe,
and Paul Varley, eds. Sources of Japanese Tradition. Vol. 1, From Earliest
Times to 1600. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University Press
2001,this perception of Zen may be traced in part to the creation of “New
Buddhism” (Shin Bukkyō 新佛教) in Japan in the second half of the nineteenth
century.
This New
Buddhism emerged in response to political and social changes attending the
Meiji Restoration. This period of time in Japanese history was initiated in
1868 when Emperor Meiji (1852–1912) reestablished actual imperial rule and
Japan was rapidly modernized. These moves toward rapid modernization were
included in the so-called Charter Oath (Gokajō no Goseimon 五箇条の御誓文) that was issued upon Emperor Meiji’s enthronement.
Consisting of five articles, the Charter Oath outlines a new direction for the
Japanese government and society. The final two articles of the Charter Oath
articulate the new emphasis on modern science, technology, and worldviews and
the intended abandonment of practices, views, and institutions that were not in
accord with modern, scientific models. Article 4 states that “Evil customs of
the past shall be broken off and everything based upon the just laws of
Nature.” Article 5 reads: “Knowledge shall be sought throughout the world so as
to strengthen the foundation of imperial rule” (De Bary et al. 2001,
p. 672). Effectively, these articles of the Charter Oath announced a withdrawal
of political and economic support for traditional religious institutions and a
new emphasis on pursuing foreign knowledge, chiefly scientific and
technological knowledge. In response, Japanese Buddhists reframed their
religion in order to argue that Buddhism made important contributions to
Japanese society, supported imperial rule, and was consistent with modern
Western science and technology. Domestically, Japanese Buddhists began to argue
that Buddhism was an essential aspect of Japanese culture, that Japanese
Buddhism was, in fact, the only “true” Buddhism in the world.
Not unlike
as was the case with the above mentioned Venerable Master Taixu a
book by Brian Daizen Victoria titled “Zen at War”(2006) traces Zen
Buddhism’s support of Japanese militarism from the time of the Meiji
Restoration through the World War II and the post-War period.
One of the
most influential person in establishing Zen Buddhism in the Western imagination
was Daisetsu Teitaro Suzuki (1870–1966), or D. T. Suzuki as he
is commonly known who along with his popularizer, Alan
Watts, first really brought the West’s attention to Zen. Published in 1934,
Suzuki’s An Introduction to Zen Buddhism is still in print and widely read
today. Therein, he presents Zen Buddhism as a “unique order claiming to
transmit the essence and spirit of Buddhism directly from its author” (Suzuki,
An Introduction to Zen Buddhism. New York,1964, p.2). But also here
Ichikawa Hakugen, a Rinzai-priest and a scholar who taught
at Hanazono University in Tokyo, saw D. T. Suzuki as “most responsible
for the development of imperial-way Zen”, but in no way standing alone in this
development. Hakugen traces this development to
pre-meiji developments. (Victoria, Zen at War, 2006, p. 167.) Or as Suzuki
himself wrote: A good fighter is generally an ascetic or stoic, which means he
has an iron will. This, when needed, Zen can supply. (As quoted
from Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki, Zen Buddhism and Its Influence on
Japanese Culture, 1938, p. 62.)
A priest named Mindar
And at
least one possible future of Buddhist syncretism can be seen in the priest
named Mindar holding forth at Kodaiji, a 400-year-old Buddhist
temple in Kyoto, Japan. Like other clergy members, this priest can deliver
sermons and move around to interface with worshippers.
But Mindar comes with some ... unusual traits. A body made of
aluminum and silicone, for starters. Mindar is a robot who
is predicted he could one day acquire unlimited wisdom.
For
related subjects see:
Buddhist Dream-Yoga in Tibet, P.1
Buddhist Dream-Yoga in Tibet, P.2
Buddhist Dream-Yoga in Tibet, P.3
The Dance of Lives: The Tulku Game